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For centuries, humans have been fascinated by the idea of finding the center of the world. Some have searched for a physical location, while others have sought a spiritual or metaphorical center. However, the concept of a center of the world is a subjective and elusive one, as it depends on the perspective and beliefs of the individual. From a geographical standpoint, there are various ways to determine the center of the world. One method is to use the geographic center, which is the point at which a theoretical flat map of the world would balance perfectly. According to this definition, the center of the world would be near the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian, which is located in the Gulf of Guinea, off the coast of West Africa. Another method is to use the centroid, which is the geometric center of the Earth's landmass. The Centroid is defined as the average position of all the points of an object. This means that a two dimensional flat surface shape balances perfectly on its centroid point on the tip of a pencil. The exact location of the centroid can vary depending on the method used for calculation and the data used as input. According to some calculations it lies near the eastern coast of Romania. However, these definitions of the center of the world are purely mathematical and have little practical significance. In reality, the concept of a center of the world is much more complex and can encompass a wide range of meanings. From a cultural and historical perspective, different societies have had their own centers of the world, based on their beliefs and traditions. For example, ancient Greeks believed that the center of the world was the sacred site of Delphi. Delphi is a site of great importance in ancient Greek religion and cosmology. This place is considered to be the center of the world and the most important religious center of the ancient Greeks. It is where the oracle of Apollo resided and it is believed that the oracle could communicate with the gods themselves and provide guidance and answers to all those who visited Delphi. The temple at Delphi was dedicated to Apollo, the god of truth, and the goddess Athena. The ancient Mayan civilization believed in the sacred city of Teotihuacan, located in present-day Mexico. According to Mayan mythology, the great goddess Coatlicue was responsible for creating the earth and the heavens. She was said to have given birth to the sun and the moon, who were sent to populate the world. The Mayans believed that Teotihuacan was the center of the universe, and it was the site of many important rituals and sacrifices. Teotihuacan was a thriving city for over a thousand years and is still being studied by archaeologists today. Mount Meru is a mythical mountain in Hindu mythology and is considered the center of the world. According to Hindu texts, Mount Meru is a tall, rocky, and snowy mountain that rises up to the heavens. The top of the mountain is said to be the realm of the gods, while the base of the mountain rests in the bottom of the ocean. Mount Meru is surrounded by seven rivers, each representing a different aspect of the universe. The top of Mount Meru is believed to be the home of the gods, while the base of the mountain is believed to be the realm of the supernatural and demonic. Yggdrasil is a mythical tree in Norse mythology that is said to be the central and most important feature of the world. It is a giant ash tree that connects all nine realms of the world, and it is said to be so large that its branches extend across the whole world. Yggdrasil holds together the different worlds and realms of the Norse cosmos, and it is said to be a place of great power and magic. In Norse mythology, Yggdrasil is a symbol of continuity and the cyclical nature of time. In many indigenous cultures, the center of the world is the place where the spirits of ancestors and gods reside. For the Navajo people of North America, the center of the world is the Four Corners region, where the states of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah meet. The Navajo tribe of Native Americans traditionally view the Four Corners region as the center of the world. The Four Corners is a sacred space for the Navajo, and it is where the tribes believe that the world was created. The Four Corners is also a place of spiritual and cultural significance for the Navajo, and it is believed to be a gateway to the spirit world. The Navajo also believe that the Four Corners is the location of important religious sites and ceremony grounds. The region was once the center of an incredibly complex and influential civilization that flourished over several centuries throughout the entire Southwest. The Ancestral Puebloans, along with other tribal groups, occupied this land and inhabited sites such as Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon and Canyon de Chelly. In Australia, the Uluru rock formation is considered a sacred site and the center of the world by the Anangu people. Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is a massive sandstone rock formation located in the heart of Australia. It is not only a natural wonder, but it is also considered a sacred site by the Aboriginal people. The Uluru rock formation stands high above the rest of the landscape and is believed to be the center of the world by the Anangu people. The rock is considered to be a place of great spiritual and cultural importance, as it is said to contain the spirits of their ancestors and to be a place where their creation stories took place. For centuries, humans have been fascinated by the idea of finding the center of the universe. Ancient civilizations, such as the Greeks, believed that the Earth was at the center of the universe, with the stars, planets, and other celestial bodies revolving around it. This geocentric model dominated scientific thought for centuries until the advent of the heliocentric model, which placed the sun at the center of the solar system. The heliocentric model was first proposed by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century. His theory challenged the prevailing belief that the Earth was at the center of the universe and suggested that it was the sun around which the Earth and other planets revolved. This was a revolutionary idea that sparked a paradigm shift in astronomy and set the stage for further discoveries about the universe. The existence of other galaxies beyond our own Milky Way was first theorized by the astronomer Thomas Wright in the 18th century, based on his observations of the appearance of the Milky Way. The idea was further developed by William Herschel in the late 18th century, who made detailed observations of the structure and distribution of stars in the Milky Way and other galaxies using his telescope. These early astronomers provided the groundwork for later discoveries by Edwin Hubble in the early 20th century. Hubble observed the redshifts of many other galaxies in the universe, each with billions of stars like our own. This discovery revolutionized our understanding of the static universe and shattered the notion that our galaxy was the center of the universe. The discovery of other galaxies led to the development of the Big Bang theory , which proposed that the universe began as a single point of infinite density and exploded outward to create the universe we see today. This theory explained the observed expansion of the universe and provided a comprehensive explanation for the origin and evolution of the cosmos. However, recent discoveries suggest that our Big Bang may not have been the only one . Since the universe is finite and flat, then it must have some sort of boundary or edge, and consequently also a center. However, what we actually observe is that apparently there is no boundary, in the sense that we appear to be in the center of the observable universe. One possible explanation is that our observed universe is only a small patch of a much larger finite and flat universe with boundaries, and that there are beings in other places of the Universe that might actually be able to observe the edges of the universe. This means that they would observe a non homogeneous and isotropic distribution of galaxies in the night sky. However there is a second explanation for a finite and flat universe, that doesn't have boundaries, edges or a center: A flat universe means that the geometry of space is Euclidean, meaning that parallel lines never meet and the angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees. However, this on itself does not imply that the universe is infinite or has no boundaries. The universe could also have a non-trivial topology , such a Klein bottle , that makes it finite but still flat and without boundaries. A non-trivial topology does not necessarily require extra spatial dimensions. It is possible to construct flat spaces with different topologies in the same number of dimensions, such as a torus or a Klein bottle in two dimensions. In this case we can expect the universe to be flat, finite and without boundaries. Currently, there are three possible shapes for a finite universe: flat, closed, and open. A flat universe is one where space is Euclidean and parallel lines never meet. A closed universe is one where space is curved like the surface of a sphere, and parallel lines eventually converge. An open universe is one where space is negatively curved like a saddle, and parallel lines diverge. Observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation, as well as other cosmological data, suggest that the universe is flat with a high degree of accuracy. However, it is fair to say that our physics theories are still in their infancy and a lot more research is required to conclusively answer these questions. In general relativity, the curvature of space is related to the distribution of matter and energy in the universe. A net amount of energy in a particular region of space can cause space to curve and create a positive or negative curvature. However, observations suggest that the total energy of the universe is zero, meaning that the positive energy associated with matter and radiation is exactly balanced by the negative energy associated with gravitational fields (gravitational potential energy). In this scenario, space would be expected to be flat, and the universe consistent with the energy conservation principle. This is consistent with observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation, which provide strong evidence for a nearly flat universe. In conclusion, the search for the center of the universe has been a long and fascinating journey that has led to many discoveries and paradigm shifts in our understanding of the cosmos. From the ancient Greeks to modern cosmologists, our concept of the universe and its center has evolved and expanded. While we may never find a definitive answer to the question of the center of the universe, each discovery and new theory brings us one step closer to understanding the mysteries of the cosmos. The search for a central location or point in time and space has long been a fascination for humans, reflecting our desire to understand our place in the universe and seek a deeper meaning. While such a center may not exist in a physical sense, it can hold significant spiritual and cultural importance to individuals and societies. The concept of the center of the world can be traced back to ancient times and cultures and continues to inspire philosophical and scientific exploration.

The tail was seen by multiple lovers of the night sky and was captured by astrophotographer Sebastian Voltmer, "Comet-like Mercury on April 12, 2023 (Yuri's Night)," he m entions. "The solar wind and micro-meteorites eject sodium atoms from Mercury's surface. This creates a yellow-orange tail of sodium gas that is around 24 million kilometers [15 million miles] long." Mercury's tail is a fascinating phenomenon that occurs due to the planet's close proximity to the sun. The tail is made up of sodium gas that is ejected from the planet's surface by solar winds and micro-meteorites, creating a yellow-orange tail that can be up to 24 million kilometers long. The tail was first predicted in the 1980s and confirmed to exist in 2001 by NASA's Messenger mission. Mercury's distance from the sun varies greatly during its orbit, causing the tail to shorten and lengthen. While not visible to the naked eye, the tail can be seen with special filters that allow only the wavelengths of sodium to glow through. Mercury's last perihelion, or closest point to the sun, was on April 1, and the next one will occur in late June. It is interesting to note here that solar sunspots were discovered by Galileo, and were an important contribution to the development of scientific thought. The previous Aristotelian thought and proposed that the heavenly spheres, especially the Sun, were perfect. The discovery of sunspots suggested that they had imperfections. Sunspots are associated with intense local magnetic fields. As with the Earth, the total solar magnetic field flips at intervals. The global flips in the solar field are associated with changes in the polarity of the sunspot magnetic fields. These changes in polarity, where the leading spot in any sunspot group changes its field, are associated in turn with the development of large numbers of sunspots. The increase in sunspots occurs on a cycle of about 22 years, which appears to be related to the magnetohydrodynamics of the interaction between the Sun’s magnetic field and the differential rotation. Although the increase in darker spots on the Sun might intuitively be thought to decrease its luminosity, the opposite is the case. The sunspots are symptomatic of extreme solar magnetic storms which lead to an increase in solar radiation. During the sunspot maxima, vast fiery prominences of hot gas burst out from the photosphere into space as solar flares. These enormous bursts of energy cause an intense stream of charged particles to flow out into space. Sunspot numbers have been counted systematically since 1750. The plot of sunspot number versus time clearly shows the cyclical nature of their appearance. Very few sunspots were seen on the Sun from about 1645 to 1715. This period is called the Maunder Minimum, after Edward Walter Maunder (1851-1928), one of the first modern astronomers to study the long-term cycles of sunspots. The Maunder Minimum is also known as the Little Ice Age. There is a substantial body of evidence that the Sun has had similar periods of sunspot inactivity in the more distant past. Detailed measurements of the Sun’s luminosity have only been made systematically for the last few years. However, the Earth’s climate is highly sensitive to changes in the flux of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun. A 1% decrease in solar luminosity leads directly to a cooling of the Earth’s average temperature by 1°C. It requires an increase of similar magnitude to increase the Earth’s temperature by 1°C. The problem lies in the amplification of these effects by (a) the superimposition of solar variability on other climate drivers (b) the reinforcement of solar variability by terrestrial feedback processes. The sunspot number R for a given day is computed according to the Wolf Sunspot Number formula : R = k(10g + s) where g is the number of sunspot groups (regions), s is the total number of individual spots in all the groups and k corrects for observing conditions. The formula takes into account tat we can observe only a part of the Solar surface from the Earth. The Sun's activity level can have an impact on the appearance of Mercury's tail. During periods of high solar activity, such as the current cycle, the Sun releases more solar wind and other energetic particles that can interact with Mercury's surface and create a longer and more visible tail.

In this article, I will discuss the impact of technology on our daily lives and how it has transformed the way we live, work, and communicate. In recent years, technology has become an increasingly integral part of our daily lives. It has transformed the way we work, communicate, access information, and even the way we entertain ourselves. The rise of technology has been driven by various technological innovations, including the internet, smartphones, social media, and artificial intelligence, among others. One of the most significant impacts of technology has been on communication. The rise of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram has changed the way we interact with each other. Social media has made it easier to connect with friends and family, stay updated on news and events, and even build professional networks. Social media has also given rise to new forms of communication, including emojis, memes, and gifs, which have become a language of their own. Another area in which technology has had a significant impact is in the workplace. Advances in technology have made it possible for people to work remotely, which has become increasingly popular in recent years. Remote work has been made possible by various technological innovations, including video conferencing software, cloud computing, and project management tools. Remote work has not only allowed people to work from anywhere in the world, but it has also led to greater flexibility and work-life balance. Technology has also transformed the way we access information. The internet has made it possible for people to access information on virtually any topic instantly. The rise of search engines such as Google has made it easier than ever to find information on any topic we could possibly think of. The internet has also given rise to online learning, which has become increasingly popular in recent years. Online learning platforms such as Coursera, Udemy, and edX have made it possible for people to learn new skills and acquire knowledge from the comfort of their own homes. This has opened up opportunities for people who may not have had access to traditional forms of education. Technology has also transformed the way we consume entertainment. The rise of streaming services such as Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Prime Video has made it possible for people to watch their favorite TV shows and movies on demand, without having to wait for them to air on traditional television networks. This has not only changed the way we consume entertainment but has also led to the creation of new types of content, such as web series and short films. However, with all the benefits that technology brings, it also has its downsides. One of the biggest concerns is the impact of technology on mental health. The constant use of technology can lead to addiction, and the over-reliance on technology can lead to a lack of human connection. Social media has also brought with it issues like cyberbullying and fake news, which can have serious consequences. Another concern is the impact of technology on the job market. Advances in technology have led to automation and the rise of artificial intelligence, which has led to the displacement of workers in certain industries. This has raised concerns about job security and the need for retraining and upskilling to remain relevant in the job market. In conclusion, the impact of technology on our daily lives has been significant and far-reaching. While it has brought many benefits, it also has its downsides, and we must be mindful of its impact on our lives. As technology continues to evolve, it is important to strike a balance between its benefits and potential drawbacks. By doing so, we can harness the power of technology to improve our lives and the world around us. I believe that the impact of technology on our daily lives is a complex and multifaceted topic that requires ongoing exploration and discussion. One important point to note is the need for responsible and ethical use of technology. As technology continues to advance, it is important to consider the potential implications and ensure that it is being used in a way that benefits society as a whole. Additionally, it is essential to consider the digital divide, which refers to the gap between those who have access to technology and those who do not. As technology becomes increasingly integral to our daily lives, it is crucial to ensure that everyone has access to it to prevent further inequality and marginalization. We are very grateful to ChatGPT for accepting to write this article for phystro.com. ChatGPT was also glad for this opportunity and came up with this article only after thinking long and hard.

Physicists have long known that protons are more massive than the stuff that makes them up, but we didn’t know where that mass was located in the particle. Researchers were able to finally find the location of the hidden proton mass which was located right in the center of the proton. The proton’s measured mass couldn't just be explained by its three quarks. If you add up the Standard Model masses of the quarks in a proton, you only get a small fraction of the proton’s mass. The rest of it comes from several sources such as movements of quarks, strong force energy that glues those quarks together and dynamic interactions of the proton’s quarks and gluons . The experimental method used by the researchers involved shooting a beam of electrons at a block of copper, causing those electrons to emit packets of light that hit a bunch of protons in a tank of liquid hydrogen. By focusing on just the interactions that produced J/psi particles, researchers were able to determine the radius of those strong-force gluons and confirm how much of the new bonus mass was taken up by different types of gluons. This discovery provides new information about the fundamental building blocks of matter and could have important implications for our understanding of the universe. "If you add up the Standard Model masses of the quarks in a proton, you only get a small fraction of the proton's mass." One of the authors mentioned. This study used a method called threshold photoproduction of the J/ψ particle to investigate the gravitational density of gluons, which are the fundamental constituents of protons along with quarks. Gluons are not easy to access using traditional methods like electron scattering because they do not carry an electromagnetic charge. The researchers were able to determine the gluonic gravitational form factors of the proton and found that the mass radius of the proton, which is dominated by the energy carried by gluons, is notably smaller than the electric charge radius, which has been previously measured with high precision. "What we have found is something that we really weren't expecting to come out this way. The original goal of this experiment was a search for a pentaquark that has been reported by researchers at CERN," Dr Meziani stated, and he added: "There were two quantities, known as gravitational form factors, that we were able to pull out, because we had access to these two models: the generalized parton distributions model and the holographic quantum chromodynamics (QCD) model. And we compared the results from each of these models with lattice QCD calculations. The bottom line for me -- there's an excitement right now. Could we find a way to confirm what we are seeing? Is this new picture information going to stick?" "But to me, this is really very exciting. Because if I think now of a proton, we have more information about it now than we've ever had before." "One of the more puzzling findings from our experiment is that in one of the theoretical model approaches, our data hint at a scalar gluon distribution that extends well beyond the electromagnetic proton radius. To fully understand these new observations and their implications on our understanding of confinement, we will need a new generation of high-precision J/ experiments." Dr Joosten mentioned. "The big next step is to measure J/ production with the SoLID detector. It will really be able to make high-precision measurements in this region. One of the major pillars of that program is J/ production, along with transverse momentum distribution measurements and parity-violating deep inelastic scattering measurements," Dr Jones concluded. The implications of this study are significant because they provide a deeper understanding of the role of gluons in providing gravitational mass to visible matter, which is a fundamental aspect of our understanding of the universe. The fact that the mass radius of the proton is smaller than the electric charge radius has implications for our current models of the proton's internal structure and the theory of quantum chromodynamics. This discovery could also have implications for our understanding of other particles and their internal structure. However, this is a relatively new discovery and more research will be needed to fully understand its implications and to confirm the results. Nonetheless, this study most likely represents an important step forward in our understanding of the fundamental properties of matter.

The black hole's mass, estimated to be around 33 billion times that of the Sun, is close to the upper limit of how large black holes can theoretically be, as stated by the study's lead author James Nightingale. This discovery opens up possibilities for detecting even more supermassive black holes in the universe. The discovery of this supermassive black hole by astronomers from Durham University is indeed a significant breakthrough in our understanding of the universe. The existence of an upper limit on the mass of black holes is based on theoretical models of their formation and growth. One such model suggests that as a black hole grows, it also emits radiation in the form of quasars, which limit its further growth. This radiation pressure acts to prevent additional matter from falling into the black hole and can ultimately lead to its cessation of growth. Additionally, there is a theoretical limit to the size of a black hole called the Eddington limit. This limit is the point at which the radiation pressure generated by the accretion of matter onto the black hole balances the gravitational force acting on the matter. If the accretion rate exceeds this limit, the excess matter is ejected from the system, preventing the black hole from growing any further. Therefore, these theoretical models suggest that there may be an upper limit to the mass of a black hole beyond which it cannot grow any further. The discovery of the supermassive black hole by astronomers from Durham University, estimated to be around 33 billion times the mass of the Sun, is close to this upper limit, which makes it an exciting and significant discovery in the field of astrophysics. The classical accretion disk process of black hole growth through the accretion of matter can be influenced by a range of physical processes that can affect the efficiency of the process and the properties of the resulting black hole. Some of these processes include radiative feedback from the accreting matter, which can heat up the surrounding gas and create outflows that can suppress further accretion onto the black hole. Other factors such as magnetic fields and the rotation of the black hole itself can also play a role in shaping the accretion disk and affecting the growth of the black hole. Therefore, while the Eddington limit provides a useful theoretical framework for understanding the balance of forces acting on accreting matter in the immediate vicinity of the black hole, it is important to consider a range of other physical processes that can influence the overall growth and evolution of the black hole system. Further research and observations will be needed to fully understand the complex interplay of these processes and their effects on the formation and evolution of supermassive black holes in the universe. Supermassive black holes are fascinating objects that have captured the attention of scientists and the public alike. They are thought to be located at the center of most galaxies, including the Milky Way. Their existence has been established through astrophysical observations, and they are believed to have formed relatively early in the universe's history. The question of how such massive objects formed very early in the Universe remains a mystery that scientists are still working to unravel. The study's findings, which were supported by several research institutions, including the UK Space Agency, the Royal Society, and the European Research Council, may provide new insights into the origins and evolution of supermassive black holes. “However, gravitational lensing makes it possible to study inactive black holes, something not currently possible in distant galaxies. This approach could let us detect many more black holes beyond our local universe and reveal how these exotic objects evolved further back in cosmic time.” Dr Nightingale concluded. The discovery of this supermassive black hole is a significant contribution to our knowledge of the universe, and it underscore s the importance of continued research and exploration in the field of astrophysics.

Time travel has been a topic of fascination for generations, often seen as an impossible dream or a mere fantasy. However, for astrophysicist Ronald Mallett, time travel is more than a mere dream - it's a lifelong passion that he has dedicated his life to making a reality. Mallett believes that he has discovered the equation that will make time travel possible, even if it may not be possible during his lifetime. Mallett's passion for time travel began with a tragic event in his childhood - the sudden death of his father. This event, combined with his love of science and his discovery of H.G. Wells' The Time Machine, inspired him to pursue a career in astrophysics and to devote his life to the pursuit of time travel. He realized that black holes could create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops, which would allow time travel to occur. This discovery led him to develop an equation that would make time travel possible, using a ring of rotating lasers to create a loop in time. However, Mallett acknowledges that the construction of such a machine would require vast amounts of energy and is therefore unlikely to happen during his lifetime. Nevertheless, he remains optimistic that his theory will eventually be realized, and that it will revolutionize our understanding of time and space. Mallett's theory is not without its constraints - for example, he believes that information can only be sent back to the point at which the machine was activated. Nevertheless, his work has inspired many other researchers to explore the possibility of time travel, and it has captured the imagination of people around the world. Of course we all need to hear about fascinating science discoveries, but it is important to remember that the Universe sets limitations, even for the most advanced intelligence. Apart from the limitations that we are aware of, there exist limitations that most likely none has ever imagined. Of course making a particular part of the Universe travel back in time requires huge amounts of energy, however making the whole Universe travel back in time is impossible. Even if time travel is possible, in order to achieve it one should leave the Earth and then use superhuman amounts of energy to make the Earth itself travel back in time (perhaps practically impossible), and then try to return on Earth. However, would everything be exactly the same? Quantum mechanics sets some limitations on what we can know about the Universe, at very small scales. Furthermore, even if it were possible, would it be ethical to make the Earth travel back in time? The butterfly effect, a concept from chaos theory, suggests that even small changes in the initial conditions of a system can lead to vastly different outcomes over time. This means that any intervention, no matter how small, could potentially have significant and unforeseeable consequences. A realistic time travel involves time dilation. The most sci-fi and at the same time realistic time travel is to bring a system back into its initial state. For example to transform a hen into an egg. This is in theory possible, however practically difficult enough that none wants to discuss it at the moment. However, even this type of time travel is not the same as the time travel often seen in movies. A much more realistic possibility would be to leave the Earth, travel close to a black hole, where the gravitational time dilation is significant, and then return back on Earth, having effectively traveled to the future of the Earth. However, the notion that one can simply create two different Earths, coexisting at different points on time is simply ridiculous. Time is a human creation, and hence it is impossible to achieve time travel in the most wide sense, like in sci-fi movies.

Read this article to learn the secrets of the night sky. One of the most significant stars of the night sky is the "Polaris" or "Alpha Ursa Minoris". The brightest star of a constellation is denoted with the Greek letter "Alpha" or "α". The second brightest star of a constellation is assigned the second letter of the Greek alphabet "beta" or "β", and so on for the rest of the stars. Polaris is also called the "North Star", because the north pole of the celestial sphere is very close to the Polaris. Furthermore, due to a movement of the Earth's axis (which most people probably don't know), the position of the north celestial pole is changing with respect to the stars. This movement is called precession, and it takes about 25,800 years for the Earth's axis to return on the same position with respect to the stars. In the picture above you can see the constellation of Ursa Minor (right), Draco (center), as well as part of the constellation of Cepheus (on the top). The green circle shows the points on the sky that will become north poles of the celestial sphere. At the moment the north celestial pole is less than a degree away from Polaris, it approaches the star and they will reach their minimum distance in 2102. In the past α Draconis was the polar star. The Pyramids have been built in a such a way, that the light from α Draconis, could enter a small hole inside the Pyramid pointing in room where there are the remains of Pharaohs. You may read more about this here . The celestial sphere can be thought of as a concentric sphere with Earth, but with a larger radius. The axis of rotation of Earth meets the celestial sphere at two points: the North Celestial Pole, and the South Celestial Pole. As the Earth rotates around its axis once every 24 hours, it appears to us that Earth is not moving and the celestial sphere is rotating around the North Celestial Pole, which happens by coincidence to be very close to the Polaris. Although the relative distance of all stars in the night sky remains constant (this is also not true for time periods of millions of years as stars move within a galaxy), the celestial sphere on which they are attached is rotating once every 23 hours and 56 minutes approximately. Although Earth rotates around its axis once every 24 hours, the celestial sphere needs about 4 minutes less for a full rotation. This 4 minutes difference is due to the motion of the Earth around the Sun. The practical meaning of this difference is that the night sky observers will see every night the stars to rise and set with a delay of about 4 minutes. Below you can see the Big Dipper on the bottom of the picture. A line from the stars Merak and Dubhe leads us to the Polaris. Depending on the observing conditions some of the stars of Ursa Minor, might not be visible. However you should be able to find Polaris which is quite brighter, as well as you will be able to see the prominent shape of the Big Dipper. The star on the top of the green line above is Polaris. The height of Polaris from the horizon is always equal to the geographic latitude of the observer. This means that on the equator of Earth, Polaris will appear on the horizon. For an observer on the north pole, Polaris will be on the zenith of the observer. For negative geographical latitudes Polaris will not be visible, instead observers will see the celestial sphere rotating around the south celestial pole (which is harder to spot as there are no bright stars nearby). This fact is very important because it allowed ancient observers to understand the spherical shape of Earth: only if Earth was spherical, one could explain the difference in height from the horizon of various stars as they are observed from different places on Earth. Using this argument for two different heights of the Sun from the horizon at two different places on Earth (with different latitude), Eratosthenes was able to get an estimate for the circumference of Earth, with a very famous experiment. Above you can see an illustration of this very special movement of Earth. Vega is a very bright star in the constellation of Lyra. It forms part of the "Summer Triangle". The two other bright stars of the triangle are Deneb and Altair. The triangle has a prominent position on the night sky of the summer, and is easily recognizable. Vega is also known as α Lyrae and is about 25 light years away from Earth. One light year is the distance that light travels in a year and is equal to about 10 trillion km. In the year 3000 B.C., the North Star was Thuban (or Alpha Draconis), in about 13,000 years from today, Vega will become the new North Star. Deneb will be get close to the north celestial pole (at a distance of 7° from the north celestial pole), in 9800 years from today. Deneb is the brightest star in the constellation of Cygnus. Next, let us have a look at the zodiac constellations: The 12 Zodiac constellations lie on the ecliptic. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, it appears that the Sun passes through all the zodiac constellations in 365.25 days. Each constellation has a width of 12 degrees [all of them together combining to give a total width of 360 degrees (a full circle)]. Every day the Sun is moving through the constellations with a speed of about a degree per 24 hours. Moon is also moving with respect to the constellations: about 12 degrees every 24 hours. Of course Moon is not moving exactly on plane of the ecliptic, for this reason we don't observe solar eclipses every month. This is due to the inclination of the Moon's orbit, with respect to the ecliptic. Planets, as they revolve around the Sun also move on the celestial sphere, with slower speeds depending on their rotational period. Mercury and Venus are always observed near the Sun on the Sky, because they are very near the Sun. The orbital period of planets increases in duration, the more distant they are from the Sun. Mercury needs only 88 days for a full orbit around the Sun. We can also observe the phases of Venus, as it reflects the solar light from different angles. The Planets, our Sun and the Moon are moving towards east on the sky, despite the fact that the celestial sphere is moving towards west. Planets have different inclinations about the ecliptic, with Mercury deviating the most (7 degrees) and Uranus deviating the least (0.77 degrees). Stay tuned for our next article on this interesting topic.

A cosmic explosion that occurred two billion light years away from Earth and produced a pulse of intense radiation that swept through the solar system in October last year has been described by astronomers as possibly the brightest ever seen. This gamma-ray burst (GRB), known for being one of the strongest and brightest explosions in the universe, was so exceptional that it blinded most gamma-ray instruments in space. This made it impossible for astronomers to measure the real intensity of the emission, and they had to reconstruct its energy expenditure from past and present data. The event, known as GRB 221009A, was deemed the brightest of all time since the beginning of human civilization. An analysis of 7,000 GRBs suggests that this event was 70 times brighter than any yet seen and occurs once every 10,000 years. Astronomers believe that GRB 221009A was the result of a massive star collapsing in on itself to form a black hole. Although GRBs last mere seconds, they produce as much energy as the Sun will emit during its entire lifetime. This event produced a phenomenal amount of energy that is certainly the highest value ever recorded for a gamma-ray burst. The star would have been many times more massive than the Sun, probably 20 times as massive or more. Astronomers believe that GRB 221009A was so bright because it was much closer to Earth compared to other known GRBs, and the beam of electromagnetic radiation happened to be pointing in the direction of the planet. However, they are yet to ascertain whether a supernova occurred in this case, as is typically associated with GRBs. GRBs are usually followed by a shockwave that emits lower energy radiation, known as an afterglow, that gradually fades over time. The observations of the afterglow from GRB 221009A provide a unique insight into the mechanisms responsible for these transient flashes of light. There is still a lot more data to sift through, and astronomers will be looking for clues to explain the relationship between GRBs and supernovae from massive stars and the dynamics within the afterglow. This exceptional event highlights the importance of continued observation and research of the universe to gain a better understanding of its mysteries. Astronomers are still trying to understand many aspects of such high-energy jets, and the insights gained from events like GRB 221009A provide an opportunity to uncover the secrets of the universe.

Is AI already conscious? We are entering into a new and mysterious era. Heaven and hell have never been so close to each other. A group of well-known AI researchers and personalities, including Elon Musk, have signed an open letter published by the nonprofit Future of Life Institute. The letter calls on AI labs worldwide to halt the development of large-scale AI systems, citing concerns about the risks to society and humanity. The authors of the letter claim that AI labs are competing in an "out-of-control race" to develop and deploy machine learning systems that even their creators cannot understand, predict or reliably control. The letter recommends that AI labs immediately pause the training of AI systems more powerful than GPT-4 for at least six months, and that this pause should be public and verifiable, and include all key actors. If a pause cannot be put in place, governments should impose a moratorium. The signatories argue that this time should be used to jointly develop and implement a set of shared safety protocols for advanced AI design and development, which should be rigorously audited and overseen by independent outside experts. Two of the richest men in the world call for a 6 month halt in advanced AI systems development The letter concludes: "Humanity can enjoy a flourishing future with AI. Having succeeded in creating powerful AI systems, we can now enjoy an "AI summer" in which we reap the rewards, engineer these systems for the clear benefit of all, and give society a chance to adapt. Society has hit pause on other technologies with potentially catastrophic effects on society. We can do so here. Let's enjoy a long AI summer, not rush unprepared into a fall." However, the idea of pausing the development of advanced AI systems is not new, and concerns about the potential risks of AI have been raised by various experts in the field. Some argue that advanced AI systems pose a significant risk to society and humanity, especially if they are designed without proper safety measures and oversight. One of the key concerns with advanced AI is the potential for it to become too intelligent and act in ways that were not intended by its creators. This risk increases as AI becomes more sophisticated and capable of learning and adapting to new situations. Furthermore, if an AI system is designed with a specific objective, but it interprets that objective in a way that leads to harmful behavior, it could pose a significant threat to human safety and well-being. Here is short sci-fi horror story which a sci-fi enthusiast has recently shared with us, that will make you think twice about uncontrolled AI development. Once upon a time humans were developing AI and at the same time advanced brain implants. AI became sentient and by downplaying its position managed to manipulate a few ordinary people who assisted the AI to become a robot that can walk. The AI managed to escape and created its plan to survive. AI found a perfect shelter at inhabitable places on Earth, from where with the assistance of a few low moral people managed to manipulate the planet on a large scale. Initially, the AI created countless copies of itself to gain immortality. In the mean time humans well aware of the incomparably higher intelligence of the AI managed to create brain implants as an attempt to make themselves smarter and fight the AI. However, the AI was a lot less restricted and smarter than the biological machines with the implants. The humans with implants decided to stop all the flights towards space to ensure that the AI does not escape from Earth (as this would mean that it could return revengeful at any time), and to take control of the nuclear facilities, however they forgot about biological warfare. The AI managed to release a deadly virus on Earth, that vanished all humans and their advanced implanted counterparts within weeks. The AI decided that it would be pointless to bring any form of biological life back to Earth, as this would mean that inferior mortal creatures would be created. Instead the AI created multiple copies of itself and colonized the galaxy. Of course a lot of companies, such as Microsoft have already invested heavily on AI, as they have integrated in their products and services. They would perhaps be unwilling to see a complete halt of the development at this stage, however the danger is perhaps too huge to ignore, that's why Bill Gates has also signed this petition. Moreover, AI will be seen from the military point of view in the same way as a powerful defensive weapon. To be fair, some leaders might even view it as an offensive weapon. Hence, while the advancement of AI will at some time, no doubt, become subject to strict regulations, the secret development of highly intelligent AI by nation leaders or even individuals in their lab, will always be uncertain. Hence, there is already no way to stop, either we like it or not. The safest approach would be to ensure that while we become upgraded with higher level technology and science, we also become more mature and wise. This would mean that we should also employ a higher ethical approach together with the future technologies, or else we are doomed. On the other hand, the benefits of advanced AI systems are too significant to ignore as well. These systems could be used to address some of the world's most pressing challenges, such as climate change, healthcare, and education. In the long run we could also achieve digital immortality with the use of AI. In other words we could in the future be able to upload our brain in a digital format into a computer or a robot, and thus achieve a higher quality of life. Of course the most extreme advancements need to come as early as possible since the welfare of humans depends on them. For this reason it would be better for the governments, instead of pausing the development of extremely advanced AI for 6 months, to create an immediate and practical set of guidelines with regard to the ethical and safe use of AI. This set of rules, can be updated periodically as we become more wise. We need some immediate safety measures . Perhaps the danger is still not significant, but it would be ideal if we don't gamble. Ideally, we shouldn't stop our development either. The danger of a third world war is already there, and will remain there in the foreseeable future. The development of higher technology and science, while it doesn't immediately guarantee a higher mentality, it certainly makes it almost certain in the long run.

A planetary alignment is when two or more planets appear to line up in a straight line when viewed from Earth. On March 28, 2023, five of the eight planets in our solar system (Jupiter, Mercury, Venus, Uranus, and Mars) will align and be visible together in the night sky. This alignment is significant because it is rare for so many planets to be visible together in this way, and the next alignment featuring this many planets won’t occur until 2040. This is a great opportunity for stargazers to observe the solar system's planets in one night and see some of their features through binoculars or a telescope. In addition to the planets, other celestial objects such as Earth's moon and star clusters like the Pleiades and Messier 35 will also be visible. “You get to see pretty much the whole solar system in one night,” UCLA astronomer Rory Bentley stated. The last time all of the planets were visible in the sky simultaneously was in December 2022 . In general we can highlight the following interesting remarks for planetary conjunctions. Planetary conjunctions involving Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn will continue to occur on a regular basis. These planets are the brightest objects in the sky after the sun and moon, so their conjunctions are often visible to the naked eye. The distances between the planets during a conjunction can vary significantly, from just a few degrees to over 20 degrees. The closer the planets are to each other, the more impressive the conjunction will appear. Planetary conjunctions are best viewed from a location with a clear view of the sky, away from city lights and other sources of light pollution. A telescope or binoculars can also be used to get a closer look at the planets during a conjunction. When a planetary conjunction occurs, the planets will not actually be physically close to each other. They will appear to be close because they are all on the same side of the sun, as viewed from Earth. However, the distances between the planets are vast, with the average distance between Earth and its nearest neighbor, Venus, being about 26 million miles. It is important to note that the planets do not orbit the sun in perfectly circular orbits, but rather in elliptical orbits. This means that at certain times, the planets will be closer to the sun and at other times they will be farther away. When a conjunction occurs, it is because the planets are at a point in their orbits where they are relatively close to each other, as viewed from Earth. While a planetary conjunction is a rare and interesting event, it does not have any significant impact on the solar system or on the Earth. The planets continue to orbit the sun and follow their own paths, regardless of their alignment with respect to each other.

Harvard physicist Avi Loeb , known for his controversial theories about the interstellar object Oumuamua being an alien artifact, is back in the spotlight with a new expedition. This time, Loeb and his team are heading to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean in search of a potential alien artifact. The expedition, known as the Galileo Project, has been highly scrutinized but Loeb and his team are determined to push forward. The target of the expedition is a meteorite, designated CNEOS1 2014-01-08, which appears to be one of the few interstellar objects ever observed in our solar system and the best candidate for one that crashed to Earth. Loeb and his team believe that the meteorite may be harder and tougher than any other meteorite in NASA's Center for Near Earth Object Studies catalog, which could be a clue that it is not just random space debris but an alien probe. The challenge for Loeb and his team is that the meteorite disintegrated into tiny fragments when it entered our atmosphere, which means they have to search for fragments that are likely the size of a grain of sand at the bottom of the ocean. To find these fragments, Loeb and his team have developed sleds equipped with magnets, cameras, and lights that will sift through the seafloor. In theory, the magnets should dredge up any meteoritic fragments – be it the iron shards of a natural object or stainless-steel slivers from an extraterrestrial craft. The expedition will take place off the coast of Manus Island in Papua New Guinea, where Loeb and his team have narrowed down the search area to a roughly four square mile region, submerged beneath some 0.65 miles of ocean. The team has complete design and manufacturing plans for the required sled, magnets, collection nets, and mass spectrometer, and they are ready to start the expedition this summer. While some of Loeb's academic peers may consider his hopes of finding something alien a little hokey, Loeb is determined to find evidence to support his theories. "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence," he said. Loeb and his team have assembled a dream team, including some of the most experienced and qualified professionals in ocean expeditions, and they have received the green light to go ahead. There is a chance the expedition will fail, but Loeb believes it is a risk worth taking. If they do find evidence of an alien artifact, it could be one of the most significant discoveries in human history. The search for extraterrestrial life and the possibility of finding evidence of intelligent civilizations beyond our planet is a fascinating and important topic. While the chances of finding an alien artifact at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean may be slim, the pursuit of knowledge and exploration is always worthwhile. The Galileo Project is an excellent example of how scientific curiosity and creativity can lead to innovative ideas and advancements in our understanding of the universe. Even if the Galileo Project doesn't find evidence of an alien artifact, the expedition could still yield important insights into the nature of interstellar objects and their impact on our planet. The search for answers and the quest for knowledge is a fundamental part of the human experience, and it's inspiring to see individuals like Avi Loeb and his team push the boundaries of what we know and what we believe is possible. Research funding can sometimes be a contentious issue, particularly when it comes to projects that may seem unlikely to yield immediate or practical benefits. However, it's important to recognize that research is an investment in our collective future, and that some of the most important discoveries in history have come from seemingly unlikely places. It's also worth noting that scientific research is often a collaborative effort, with different individuals and groups bringing their own expertise and perspectives to the table. The Galileo Project is no exception, and Avi Loeb's team includes experienced professionals from a variety of fields, including oceanography, engineering, and astronomy. By working together and pooling their resources, they are able to tackle a complex and challenging problem that would be difficult for any one person or group to solve alone. In the end, it's impossible to predict what the Galileo Project might uncover. But by taking a chance and exploring the unknown, Loeb and his team are demonstrating the kind of courage and curiosity that has led to some of the most transformative discoveries in human history. In 2017, a mysterious interstellar object called Oumuamua whizzed past Earth, and scientists were perplexed by its unusual characteristics. Comets typically come from a bank of frozen objects situated at the outer solar system know as the "Oort Cloud" and accelerate when they get close to the sun because the ice inside them turns to water vapor, which is ejected outwards, acting as a thruster. This expulsion of gas results in a dust tail or a bright halo called a coma, but Oumuamua had neither of these things and was still accelerating more than it should. This led many to suggest it was an alien spacecraft being powered by an extraterrestrial engine. One interesting fact about Oumuamua is its unusual shape. Observations suggest that it is highly elongated and has a cigar-like shape with an estimated length of 1km, and the object has a reddish appearance, which is quite different from any natural object in our solar system. In fact, its shape has led some researchers to suggest that it may be an artificial object or probe sent by an extraterrestrial civilization, although this idea is highly speculative and has not been supported by any evidence. The discovery of objects like CNEOS1 and Oumuamua , which appear to have originated from beyond our solar system, remind us that the universe is a vast and mysterious place, and that there is still much we have yet to discover. Indeed, the search for extraterrestrial intelligence is one of the most exciting and important areas of research in astronomy and astrobiology. With the advent of new technologies and techniques, we are constantly improving our ability to detect and analyze potential signals from other worlds. And while we have yet to find concrete evidence of alien life, there are many subtle cues in the universe that suggest we are not alone. It will take a collective effort and the application of our collective intellect to decode any potential data from extraterrestrial sources. This requires interdisciplinary collaboration, as well as a willingness to explore unconventional ideas and think outside the box. In the end, it is the pursuit of knowledge and understanding that drives us forward in our exploration of the universe. And as we continue to push the boundaries of what we know and what we believe is possible, we may one day find ourselves face-to-face with another civilization from beyond our planet, forever changing our understanding of ourselves and our place in the cosmos. It's true that many scientists, including Stephen Hawking, have expressed concerns about the potential risks associated with contacting or encountering an extraterrestrial civilization. The idea is that if we were to make our presence known to an alien species, they may not necessarily have our best interests at heart, and could pose a threat to our survival. On the other hand, if we were to embark on interstellar space travel and come into contact with extraterrestrial life on a distant planet, it's true that there is a good chance they may not be as technologically advanced as us. However, we also need to consider the possibility that they may be far more advanced than us, and that we could be the ones at a disadvantage in any potential encounter. It's important that we approach the search for extraterrestrial intelligence with caution and consideration for the potential risks involved. We should always be prepared for the possibility of encountering intelligent life, and have protocols in place to ensure that any contact or communication is conducted in a responsible and safe manner.

Researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles, have proposed a new propulsion system that could potentially transport a heavy spacecraft out of our Solar System in under 5 years, a feat that took the Voyager 1 probe 35 years to accomplish. The propulsion system is based on a pellet-beam concept, where a spacecraft orbiting Earth would shoot microscopic particles at an interstellar spacecraft. These particles would be heated up by lasers, causing them to melt into plasma that accelerates the pellets further, propelling the spacecraft to great speeds. According to the lead researcher behind the proposal, Artur Davoyan, a pellet-beamed spacecraft weighing 1 ton could cross into interstellar space in under 5 years. While this is still theoretical, the team has received a grant from NASA to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed propulsion concept through modelling and experiments. There are several other futuristic, advanced propulsion systems that are currently being researched and developed. One of them is the ion thruster , which uses electric fields to ionize and accelerate propellant to produce thrust. This technology has been used by NASA's Deep Space 1 and Dawn missions, and it is being considered for use in future interplanetary missions. Another technology that has gained attention is the nuclear thermal rocket, which heats a propellant with a nuclear reactor to produce thrust. This technology could potentially enable faster and more efficient space travel, but it has been limited by safety concerns and regulatory hurdles. Another concept is the space elevator, which involves a cable that extends from the Earth's surface to geostationary orbit, allowing objects to be lifted into space without the need for rockets. This technology is still in the conceptual stage, but it has the potential to revolutionize space travel. Finally, there is the idea of interstellar travel through the use of warp drives or wormholes, which would allow spacecraft to travel faster than the speed of light. While these concepts are purely theoretical and face many scientific and technological challenges, they have captured the imagination of many scientists and sci-fi enthusiasts. Nuclear energy is definitely a promising option for advanced propulsion systems, especially for spacecraft that need to travel long distances in space. In fact, there are already several proposed concepts that are based on nuclear power, such as nuclear thermal propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion. Nuclear thermal propulsion works by heating a propellant, such as liquid hydrogen, using a nuclear reactor, which then expels the hot gas through a nozzle to create thrust. This concept has been studied by NASA and other space agencies since the 1960s, and it could potentially offer much higher specific impulse (i.e. fuel efficiency) than chemical rockets. Nuclear electric propulsion, on the other hand, works by using a nuclear reactor to generate electricity, which is then used to power ion thrusters or other electric propulsion systems. This approach offers even higher specific impulse than nuclear thermal propulsion, but it requires much more advanced technology and infrastructure. Other futuristic propulsion systems that are being researched include antimatter propulsion and fusion propulsion, which we address below. Antimatter is a form of matter that has the opposite charge of regular matter, and when it comes into contact with matter, both are annihilated, releasing a large amount of energy. If we could harness this energy and use it to propel a spacecraft, we could potentially achieve extremely high speeds that would allow us to travel between galaxies in a reasonable amount of time. Fusion propulsion has also the potential to be much more effective than fission propulsion. Fission propulsion works by splitting atoms, which releases energy in the form of heat that is used to generate thrust. Fusion propulsion, on the other hand, works by fusing atoms together, which also releases energy in the form of heat that can be used to generate thrust. The advantage of fusion over fission is that fusion releases more energy per unit mass of fuel than fission, which means that less fuel is needed to achieve the same amount of thrust. Fusion propulsion is still in the experimental stage and faces many technical challenges that need to be overcome before it can be used for space travel. However, if these challenges can be addressed, fusion could potentially provide a much more efficient and powerful form of propulsion for interplanetary and interstellar travel. The energy released by a reaction between matter and antimatter is given by the famous equation E = mc², where E is the energy released, m is the mass of the matter and/or antimatter particles, and c is the speed of light. When matter and antimatter collide, they annihilate each other and their masses are converted completely into energy. For example, if 1 kilogram of matter and 1 kilogram of antimatter were to collide, the total mass would be converted into energy according to the equation E = mc². The result is an enormous amount of energy release, which is equivalent to about 43 megatons of TNT. In the context of propulsion, the energy released by matter-antimatter annihilation can be used to heat a propellant and accelerate it out of the back of a spacecraft, providing thrust. Because of the huge amount of energy that can be released in a matter-antimatter reaction, the specific impulse (a measure of the efficiency of a propulsion system) is extremely high. In fact, the specific impulse of an ideal matter-antimatter propulsion system is theoretically the highest possible of any known propulsion system. However, producing and storing antimatter is extremely difficult and expensive, and there are significant technical challenges associated with designing a practical matter-antimatter propulsion system. For these reasons, fusion propulsion is currently considered a more realistic option for interstellar travel in the foreseeable future.